No toxicities or adverse effects have been reported for lutein and zeaxanthin (25, 26).

 

In intervention trials daily doses of up to 30 mg lutein showed no negative effects over a long period (27).

As the safety of lutein and zeaxanthin supplements during pregnancy and lactation has not been established, pregnant and breastfeeding women should obtain these carotenoids from foods rather than supplements. There is no reason to limit the consumption of carotenoid-rich fruits and vegetables during pregnancy (26).

 

Lung cancer risk

An evaluation of data from the VITamins And Lifestyle cohort study discussed the connection between antioxidant supplements and the incidence of lung cancer (28). The authors speculated that longer duration of use of individual lutein, beta-carotene, and vitamin A (retinol) supplements was associated with elevated risk of total lung cancer. However, experts commented that the retrospective study was flawed due to an invalid design, biased questionnaire methodology, and questionable statistical evaluations (see also Expert Opinion).

 

Tolerable upper intake levels

Presently, no tolerable upper intake level (UL) has been set for lutein and zeaxanthin.

 

Drug interactions

There are no well-known drug interactions with lutein or zeaxanthin.