BIBLIOGRAFÍA
- Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Beta-carotene and other carotenoids. Dietary reference intakes for vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, and carotenoids. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press; 2000:325–400.
- Pavia SA, Russell RM. Beta-carotene and other carotenoids as antioxidants. J Am Coll Nutr 1999; 18:426–33.
- Young AJ, Lowe GM. Antioxidant and prooxidant properties of carotenoids. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2001; 385(1):20–27.
- Bertram JS. Carotenoids and gene regulation. Nutr Rev. 1999;57(6):182–191.
- Stahl W, Nicolai S, Briviba K, et al. Biological activities of natural and synthetic carotenoids: induction of gap junctional communication and singlet oxygen quenching. Carcinogenesis. 1997; 18(1):89–92.
- van Poppel G, Spanhaak S, Ockhuizen T. Effect of beta-carotene on immunological indexes in healthy male smokers. Am J Clin Nutr. 1993; 57(3):402–407.
- Hughes DA, Wright AJ, Finglas PM, et al. The effect of beta-carotene supplementation on the immune function of blood monocytes from healthy male nonsmokers. J Lab Clin Med. 1997; 129(3):309–317.
- Santos MS, Gaziano JM, Leka LS, Beharka AA, Hennekens CH, Meydani SN. Beta-carotene-induced enhancement of natural killer cell activity in elderly men: an investigation of the role of cytokines. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998; 68(1):164–170.
- Peto R, Doll R, Buckley JD, Sporn MB. Can dietary beta-carotene materially reduce human cancer rates? Nature. 1981; 290(5803):201-208.
- Ziegler RG. A review of epidemiologic evidence that carotenoids reduce the risk of cancer. J Nutr. 1989; 119(1):116–122.
- Michaud DS, Feskanich D, Rimm EB, et al. Intake of specific carotenoids and risk of lung cancer in 2 prospective US cohorts. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000; 72(4):990–997.
- Mannisto S, Smith-Warner SA, Spiegelman D, et al. Dietary Carotenoids and Risk of Lung Cancer in a Pooled Analysis of Seven Cohort Studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2004; 13(1):40–48.
- Gallicchio L, Boyd K, Matanoski G, et al. Carotenoids and the risk of developing lung cancer: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008; 88(2):372–383.
- Rissanen TH, Voutilainen S, Nyyssonen K, Salonen R, Kaplan GA, Salonen JT. Serum lycopene concentrations and carotid atherosclerosis: the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003; 77(1):133–138.
- Dwyer JH, Paul-Labrador MJ, Fan J, Shircore AM, Merz CN, Dwyer KM. Progression of Carotid Intima-Media Thickness and Plasma Antioxidants: The Los Angeles Atherosclerosis Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2003.
- McQuillan BM, Hung J, Beilby JP, Nidorf M, Thompson PL. Antioxidant vitamins and the risk of carotid atherosclerosis. The Perth Carotid Ultrasound Disease Assessment study (CUDAS). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 38(7):1788–1794.
- Rissanen T, Voutilainen S, Nyyssonen K, Salonen R, Salonen JT. Low plasma lycopene concentration is associated with increased intima-media thickness of the carotid artery wall. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2000; 20(12):2677–2681.
- D'Odorico A, Martines D, Kiechl S, et al. High plasma levels of alpha- and beta-carotene are associated with a lower risk of atherosclerosis: results from the Bruneck study. Atherosclerosis. 2000; 153(1):231–239.
- Iribarren C, Folsom AR, Jacobs DR, Jr., Gross MD, Belcher JD, Eckfeldt JH. Association of serum vitamin levels, LDL susceptibility to oxidation, and autoantibodies against MDA-LDL with carotid atherosclerosis. A case-control study. The ARIC Study Investigators. Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997; 17(6):1171–1177.
- Sesso HD, Buring JE, Norkus EP, Gaziano JM. Plasma lycopene, other carotenoids, and retinol and the risk of cardiovascular disease in women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004; 79(1):47–53.
- Rissanen TH, Voutilainen S, Nyyssonen K, et al. Low serum lycopene concentration is associated with an excess incidence of acute coronary events and stroke: the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study. Br J Nutr. 2001; 85(6):749–754.
- Street DA, Comstock GW, Salkeld RM, Schuep W, Klag MJ. Serum antioxidants and myocardial infarction. Are low levels of carotenoids and alpha-tocopherol risk factors for myocardial infarction? Circulation. 1994; 90(3):1154–1161.
- Ito Y, Kurata M, Suzuki K, Hamajima N, Hishida H, Aoki K. Cardiovascular disease mortality and serum carotenoid levels: a Japanese population-based follow-up study. J Epidemiol. 2006; 16(4):154–160.
- Buijsse B, Feskens EJ, Kwape L, Kok FJ, Kromhout D. Both alpha- and beta-carotene, but not tocopherols and vitamin C, are inversely related to 15-year cardiovascular mortality in Dutch elderly men. J Nutr. 2008; 138(2):344–350.
- Sesso HD, Buring JE, Norkus EP, Gaziano JM. Plasma lycopene, other carotenoids, and retinol and the risk of cardiovascular disease in men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005; 81(5):990–997.
- Hak AE, Stampfer MJ, Campos H, et al. Plasma carotenoids and tocopherols and risk of myocardial infarction in a low-risk population of US male physicians. Circulation. 2003; 108(7):802–807.
- Evans RW, Shaten BJ, Day BW, Kuller LH. Prospective association between lipid soluble antioxidants and coronary heart disease in men. The Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Am J Epidemiol. 1998; 147(2):180–186.
- Sahyoun NR, Jacques PF, Russell RM. Carotenoids, vitamins C and E, and mortality in an elderly population. Am J Epidemiol. 1996; 144(5):501–511.
- The effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers. The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1994; 330(15):1029–1035.
- Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Manson JE, et al. Lack of effect of long-term supplementation with beta carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 1996; 334(18):1145–1149.
- Greenberg ER, Baron JA, Karagas MR, et al. Mortality associated with low plasma concentration of beta carotene and the effect of oral supplementation. JAMA. 1996; 275(9):699–703.
- Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, et al. Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 1996; 334(18):1150–1155.
- Köpcke W and Krutmann J (2008) Protection from sunburn with beta-Carotene--a meta-analysis. Photochemistry and Photobiology 84(2):284–8.
- Christen WG, Manson JE, Glynn RJ, et al. A randomized trial of beta carotene and age-related cataract in US physicians. Arch Ophthalmol. 2003; 121(3):372–378.
- Chylack LT, Jr., Brown NP, Bron A, et al. The Roche European American Cataract Trial (REACT): a randomized clinical trial to investigate the efficacy of an oral antioxidant micronutrient mixture to slow progression of age-related cataract. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2002; 9(1):49–80.
- Gritz DC, Srinivasan M, Smith SD, et al. The Antioxidants in Prevention of Cataracts Study: effects of antioxidant supplements on cataract progression in South India. Br J Ophthalmol. 2006; 90(7):847–851.
- A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E and beta carotene for age-related cataract and vision loss: AREDS report no. 9. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001; 119(10):1439–1452.
- Mathews-Roth MM. Carotenoid functions in photoprotection and cancer prevention. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol. Jul-Oct 1990; 10(4-5):181–92.
- European Food Safety Authority, Scientific Committee on Food. Tolerable Upper Intake Levels for Vitamins and Minerals. 2006: ISBN: 92-9199-014-0.
- Biesalski HK. et al. Antioxidant vitamins in prevention. Clin Nutr. 1997; 16:151–155.
- Elmadfa I. et al.,European Nutrition and Health Report 2004. Forum Nutr. Basel: Karger; 2005.
- Pelz R et al. (1998) Carotenoid intake in the German National Food Consumption Survey. Z Ernaehrungswiss. 37: 319–27
- Adolf T et al. (1995) Ergebnisse der Nationalen Verzehrsstudie (1985-1988) über die Lebensmittel- und Nährstoffaufnahme in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. In: VERA-Schriftenreihe, Band XI. W Kübler, HJ Anders, W Heeschen (Hrsg.) Wissenschaftlicher Fachverlag Dr. Fleck, Niederkleen.
- Nationale Verzehrsstudie II, 2008 (www.was-esse-ich.de), Max-Rubner-Institut, Karlsruhe, Germany.
- Scientific Committee on Food (2000) Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on the safety of use of beta carotene from all dietary sources; SCF/CS/ADD/COL/159 Final.
- Scientific Committee on Food (2000) Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on the Tolerable Upper Intake Level of Beta Carotene; SCF/CS/NUT/UPPLEV/37 Final
- Beitz R., Mensink GBM, Rams S, Döring A, (2004): Vitamin- und Mineralstoffsupplementierung in Deutschland. Bundesgesundheitsblatt 47:1057–1065.
- Jalal F, Nesheim MC, Agus Z, Sanjur D, Habicht JP. Serum retinol concentrations in children are affected by food sources of beta-carotene, fat intake, and anthelmintic drug treatment. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998; 68(3):623–629.
- van Het Hof KH, West CE, Weststrate JA, Hautvast JG. Dietary factors that affect the bioavailability of carotenoids. J Nutr. 2000; 130(3):503–506.
- During A, Harrison EH. Intestinal absorption and metabolism of carotenoids: insights from cell culture. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2004; 430(1):77–88.
- Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, et al. Risk factors for lung cancer and for intervention effects in CARET, the Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996; 88(21):1550–1559.
- Lee I-M, Cook NR, Manson JE, Buring JE, Hennekens CH: Beta-carotene supplementation and incidence of cancer and cardiovascular disease: the Womens´ Health Study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999; 91: 2102–2109.
- Vainio H, Rautalahti M. An international evaluation of the cancer preventive potential of carotenoids. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1998; 7(8):725–728.
- U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Routine vitamin supplementation to prevent cancer and cardiovascular disease: recommendations and rationale. Ann Intern Med. 2003; 139(1):51–55.
- Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, et al. Mortality in Randomized Trials of Antioxidant Supplements for Primary and Secondary Prevention - A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA 2007; 297:842–857.
- Satia, Jessie A et al: Long-term Use of β-Carotene, Retinol, Lycopene, and Lutein Supplements and Lung Cancer Risk: Results From the VITamins And Lifestyle (VITAL)
y, Am J Epidemiol. 2009; 169(7):815–828.
- Hercberg S, Ezzedine K, Guinot C; et al. Antioxidant supplementation increases the risk of skin cancers in women but not in men. J Nutr. 2007; 137(9):2098–2105.
- Green AC et al. Antioxidant supplementation and risk of skin cancers. J Nutr. 2008; 138(5):978.
- Asgari M. M. et al. Antioxidant Supplementation and Risk of Incident Melanomas - Results of a Large Prospective Cohort Study. Arch Dermatol, 2009; 145(8):879–882.
- Goralczyk R. Beta-Carotene and Lung Cancer in Smokers: Review of Hypotheses and Status of Research. Nutrition and Cancer. 2009; 61(6):767 — 774.
- Biesalski H. K. et al. Reexamination of a meta-analysis of the effect of antioxidant supplementation on mortality and health in randomized trials. Nutrients. 2010; 2:929–949.
- EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food. Statement on the safety of beta-carotene use in heavy smokers. EFSA Journal 2012; 10(12):2953.
- Bjelakovic G. et al. Meta-Regression Analyses, Meta-Analyses, and Trial Sequential Analyses of the Effects of Supplementation with Beta-Carotene, Vitamin A, and Vitamin E Singly or in Different Combinations on All-Cause Mortality: Do We Have Evidence for Lack of Harm? PLoS One. 2013; 8(9):e74558.